Chuck Stewart: Chuck Stewart received his Ph.D. in Education at the University of Southern California, with a dissertation on effective strategies for reducing homophobia in police academy training programs. He is author of a curriculum guide on heterosexism for school teachers, forthcoming from Sage Press. He is chair of the Los Angeles chapter of Gay and Lesbian Scientists, and an affiliated scholar of ONE Institute.
Although great strides have been made in the struggle for gay and lesbian rights, lesbian and gay educators and students have remained virtually invisible. This book reviews the recent research on homosexuality and education, a prospect that was impossible just a few years ago since research has been discouraged. Harbeck points out that since American education has emphasized moral development as a primary goal, teachers are seen as role models for impressionable youth. Local governments have often imposed a wide variety of forbidden behaviors on teachers, including pressure on lesbian and gay teachers to stay in the closet that is practically unsurpassed in any other profession. Each article is valuable for assessing its subject.
Addressing the Needs of Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youth: The Origins of PROJECT 10 and School-Based Intervention. Virginia Uribe, Ph.D. & Karen M. Harbeck, Ph.D., JD
Within Los Angeles Unified School District, Virginia Uribe was placed in charge of developing a model program at Fairfax High School to work with self-identified gay, lesbian and bisexual students in a school setting. PROJECT 10 evolved from Uribe's work and was envisioned as an in-school counseling program to help young people with information and resources on homosexuality. Another important aspect to the program was to educate the community about gay, lesbian and bisexual youth issues.
PROJECT 10 was expanded throughout the school district to include all secondary schools primarily due to strong school board support and the obvious need for such a program. Expansion was accomplished through bulletins to each principal and a packet of information distributed to each head counselor. With over 210 school participating, it was found that a one-on-one counseling effort may be the only way to transmit the information effectively. School-based health practitioners and personal physicians need to be aware that gay and lesbian youths are not utilizing their services and when they do, they hide their sexual orientation.
PROJECT 10 has had substantial effects on anti-gay prejudices and discrimination, minimized the potential controversy about the issues and at low-cost. It is recognized that the impetus for prejudice reduction programs should originate from within the school district and must occur immediately in every school in the nation. If such programs are not initiated, a litigation strategy should be pursued thorough the state courts. “The pain and hardship suffered by adolescent gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth is no longer invisible, and our lack of action is no longer professionally or ethically acceptable” (Uribe in Harbeck, 27).
Educators, Homosexuality, and Homosexual Students: Are Personal Feelings Related to Professional Beliefs? James T. Sears, Ph.D.
The study by Sears explored adolescents' perceptions of the beliefs and abilities of school counselors and teachers with regard to issues of homosexuality and the treatment of gay and lesbian students. Additionally, it also presents the personal beliefs of educators about homosexuality, and how these attitudes are actualized in schools. A major conclusion, among others, was that teachers and school counselors expressed “the feeling that they should be more proactive and supportive as professionals committed to the welfare of all of their students, due to countervailing expressions of high levels of personal prejudice, ignorance, and fear, the realities of their professional intervention and support were negligible” (Sears in Harbeck, 29).
Using the Index of Homophobia, Sears found that 80% of the prospective teachers surveyed harbored negative feelings toward lesbians and gay men. Those pursuing elementary education were more likely to harbor homophobic feelings and express homo-negative attitudes than those planning to teach in secondary school. Black prospective teachers expressed more negative attitudes about homosexuality than their white counterparts but were no more homophobic in their feelings toward lesbians and gay men (Sears, 1989a). Additionally, Sears found: (1) that the point at which prospective teachers are at in their professional program of studies is not significantly related to either their attitudes toward homosexuality or their feelings toward lesbians and gay men, (2) no differences on attitudes or feelings were found with respect to gender, and African-American prospective teachers were more likely to express negative attitudes toward homosexuals than Anglo students. Sears states that “high school associations, adequate and accurate knowledge about homosexuality lessened prospective teacher's negative attitudes and feelings; they did not eliminate them” (Sears in Harbeck, 54).
Nearly two thirds of the school counselors surveyed by Sears expressed negative attitudes and feelings about homosexuality and homosexual persons. Overall, the school counselors' scores were slightly less homophobic and homo-negative than those of the prospective teachers. Guidance counselors were much more likely to adopt liberal positions on civil rights issues, but to hold a conservative moral view and fear of personal contact. Staff development, etc., must be directed at the level of affect, not cognition, if the efforts are to be effective. Intense feelings of discomfort, fear, and hatred are more pervasive than the educators' attitudes about lesbian and gay civil rights. Few workshops focus on the emotions.
Sears suggests that homophobia educators need to collaborate with those involved in anti-racism workshops that engage persons in 3-5 day workshops. He contends that this lack of communication contributes to the splintering of educational efforts to end prejudice and violence directed at lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. The Campaign to End Homophobia is a group which conducts group sessions exploring the interrelationship of oppression based on race, gender, social class, and sexual identity.
Sears contends the absence of visible support from educators conveys to all students the legitimacy and desirability of the heterosexual standard.
Liberal Attitudes and Homophobic Acts: The Paradoxes of Homosexual Experience in a Liberal Institution. William P. Norris, Ph.D.
Norris made a survey of students, staff, faculty and administrators at Oberlin College in Ohio. He found much pro-gay support in private attitudes, but contends that many nonprejudiced heterosexuals censored their public support of lesbians and gays due to anxiety about implied homosexuality if they were seen as being too pro-LGB. On the other hand, problems of anti-gay discrimination, including verbal harassment and veiled threats, existed at Oberlin. Competing sets of values appeared to account for the paradox—one focusing on equal rights, the other on heterosexual orthodoxy. The issues of equal rights are well founded in the history of Oberlin, and were expressed by study participants as positive to items of attitudes toward working, socializing, and living with LGBs.
The dichotomy of Oberlin values lies in its enforcement of heterosexual orthodoxy. According to Norris, probably less than half of Oberlin employees disapprove of homosexuality, do not want it openly discussed, and harass and insult LGBs or those perceived to be LGB, or those interested in LGB issues. Equally important is the graffiti and stereotypical comments which emphasize disapproval of any deviation from traditional male/female roles. Anecdotal notes by respondents indicated overwhelming emphasis on the inappropriateness of public discussion or the manifestation of homosexuality. It was seen as a private matter, similar to the privacy defense used to protect homosexual rights (see Norris in Harbeck, 117). Many respondents are dealing with competing values. Many may express strong support for LGB rights in the abstract, but not follow through with actions espousing those beliefs.
Gay and Lesbian Educators: Past History/Future Prospects. Karen M. Harbeck, Ph.D., JD
In 1955, the American Law Institute Model Penal Code (17) recommended that “all forms of sexual activity between consenting adults be legalized” (Harbeck in Harbeck, 125). It was initially rejected by most of the states, but with growing concern for procedural rights of criminals and increasing sympathy for persons accused of victimless crimes, many states have adopted similar recommendations. Judiciary decisions tended to liberalize previous educational policy regarding immorality, criminal conduct, and the extent of punishment for consensual sexual activity outside of marriage. This change in attitude by the judiciary threatened to upset the balance of power for school administrators, since criminal convictions had previously been the basis for dismissal on the ground of unfitness to teach due to immoral conduct.
Many civil rights groups provided funds for litigation that involved homosexual rights and/or the right to personal freedom by school teachers. The NEA has been strongly in support of such cases. The outcomes of cases during the 1970s were inconsistent, but since 1979 public and administrative attitudes have shifted significantly in favor of homosexual educators. School officials now fear the costs of litigation due to many cases being supported by special interest groups representing homosexual educators. Considering the complexities of the social and legal issues involved, coupled with sufficient financial resources on both sides, courts have avoided a declaring whether or not homosexuals have the constitutional right to teach in schools. Because the judiciary has avoided taking a stand on these controversial issues, school boards seem more willing to ignore a teacher's sexual orientation (unless some indiscretion has occurred). Additionally, they are more willing to mediate/negotiate than to undertake costly litigation.
Although homosexual educators now seem to enjoy broad latitude in being out in a teaching situation, Harbeck cautions that the danger is not overt discrimination and/or job termination, as much as it is limited advancement, ungranted tenure, mundane duty assignments, and undesirable teaching loads (Harbeck in Harbeck, 131).
Case law for tenured teachers shows the power of contractual rights, union clout, and the opportunity to develop a history of professional excellence and community approval. Harbeck believes that further advances lie in education. Research shows that if a heterosexual individual knows a homosexual, then acceptance increases as homophobic responses decrease (46). Community deference to school officials remains strong, making critical the attitudinal responses of state legislators and school administrators. All teachers have benefited from the employment freedoms won in major homosexual educator cases. Teachers have the obligation and opportunity to incorporate the contributions of minority individuals into the curriculum. New information empowers as well as enlightens.
Living In Two Worlds: The Identity Management Strategies Used by Lesbian Physical Educators. Sherry E. Woods, Ed.D. & Karen M. Harbeck, Ph.D., JD
Woods' research dealt with the coping strategies of lesbian physical education teachers as related to occupational stresses caused by homophobia and women involved in sports. Certain circumstances can still trigger hostility and prejudice, although gay men and lesbians have achieved greater freedom and social acceptance. By surveying 12 lesbian sports educators, the authors found that these teachers remained closeted because they feared professional repercussions, which often outweighed their need to be open about their sexuality.
All participants reported school environments where homophobia and heterosexism were the norm. They reported blatant and subtle forms of homophobic harassment: fear of dismissal and being subject to various displays of heterosexual privilege. They also had to frequently deny their true self, so that their professional role was not confused with the personal self.
Participants reported paying a personal and professional toll for concealing their sexual orientation, and felt hampered in functioning as an honest member of the school environment. Additionally, they “suffered remorse that they were failing to be positive lesbian role models for both homosexual and heterosexual students” (Woods and Harbeck in Harbeck, 160). On a day-to-day basis, most of their energy was spent trying to conceal their sexual orientation, some more easily than others.
Because of the homophobic climate of society in general, the risk-taking behaviors of the participants should not be minimized. By coming out, their colleagues were forced to deal directly with issues of homophobia, thus interrupting the “oppressive pattern of invisibility and prejudice” (Woods and Harbeck in Harbeck, 161).
Woods contends that a major step in openly acknowledging sexual orientation “would be the protection offered by a large group of professionals who are willing to use their collective influence for the benefit and protection of minority members . . . A united front of heterosexual and homosexual teachers would be a powerful political force and would provide positive role modeling of acceptance for and appreciation of diversity” (Woods and Harbeck in Harbeck, 162). All physical educators are impacted by homophobia and heterosexism, not just lesbian physical educators.
From Hiding Out to Coming Out: Empowering Lesbian and Gay Educators. Pat Griffin, Ed.D.
Several themes surfaced from analysis of interviews done by the authors. Teachers made decisions regarding management of sexual identity depending on each situation, and from day-to-day, based on ” an underlying tension between their fear of public accusation and their wish for the integrity that they believed could come only from the integration of their lesbian/gay and educator identities” (Griffin in Harbeck, 171). It was firmly believed they would suffer loss of job or loss of credibility among students, parents, and colleagues. The teachers' protective strategies were centered around four areas: reputation, preparation, regulation and separation.
Approached as a continuum of strategies for identity management, participants described four categories of disclosure: passing, covering, being implicitly out, and being explicitly out. Passing was considered the safest and being explicitly out was the most risk-taking position. More than half the participants related that being lesbian or gay had no relation to their abilities as an educator. “Their insistence that being lesbian or gay had nothing to do with being a good educator was a defensive and protective response to the social stigma attached to lesbian and gay people who work with young people” (Gifford in Harbeck, 182). But all participants talked about “how being lesbian or gay provided them with a special perspective” (Gifford in Harbeck, 182).
The research by Griffin defined a three-part definition of empowerment: engendering positive feelings about oneself and group identity as homosexual educators, developing a better understanding of themselves in a heterosexist society, and creating opportunities for homosexual educators to be actively involved in changing their situation and to gain more control over their lives at work. Empowerment was used as a goal for all participants.
Participants reported that sharing their stories with other lesbian or gay teachers was an extremely powerful tool in the research. Many reported feeling very intimidated by the process but found support from other members of the study. They no longer felt isolated and guarded as they had at school; they shared tears and laughter while sharing each others' profile. The teachers who shared their stories with each other made a group decision to march in a local gay/lesbian pride parade, and to start a local organization for homosexual educators. Nine of the twelve participants attended the march as planned by the group. Reactions to participating in the parade were very enlightening and empowering to each individual. Organizing the gay/lesbian educators' association took the form of monthly meetings, alternating between social events and an educational program focusing on being homosexual educators.
Group interviews provided participants with the opportunity to discuss changes that had occurred in the areas of self-perceptions, identification with the group, and actions taken in school. Participants related feeling more “whole” (Griffin in Harbeck, 190) about themselves, and the fear of discovery had become more manageable. Participants also developed a strong cohesive feeling with each other, reporting group support as invaluable as a resource for self and professional areas of concern. Participants reported more openness at school regarding homophobia and also about their identities. Although caution was used in judging each situation, they reported “being amazed at the lack of negative responses they received from colleagues and students” (Griffin in Harbeck, 191). Participants were enabled to become more visible at school and to feel more a sense of belonging by being more open with colleagues. Many participants felt “that their own experience of being different and overcoming negative social judgments enabled them to be more sensitive to students who do not fit in with their classmates” (Griffin in Harbeck, 193).
Griffin contends that the entire educational community benefits from the empowerment of homosexuals. The participants found they could be more productive when not having to spend energy hiding and protecting themselves from a homophobic community.
Images of Gays and Lesbians in Sexuality and Health Textbooks. Mariamne H. Whatley, Ph.D.
“Photographs may have more impact than drawings because they are seen as objective representations of reality” (Whatley in Harbeck, pg. 198). The author examined photographs of lesbians and gay men in college health and sexuality textbooks, finding that editors usually maintain a balance between overt homophobia and being careful not to offend groups that oppose homosexuality as a viable lifestyle. Abortion and homosexuality are the topics most likely to lead to negative reactions.
Whatley found that lesbians were very under-represented. Considering the general public's more open acceptance of lesbian relationships than gay men relationships, it would seem that attempts at educating the public regarding lesbians would be appropriate. Out of 100 identifiable pictures of lesbians and gay men, only three also identified people of color. This would tend to make homosexuality almost exclusively Caucasian. The photographs also showed homosexuals to be young and physically able, while there were no individuals shown with any physical disability.
Whatley found the portrayal of lesbians and gay men as activists to be a very positive image of fighting for civil rights. Having information on homosexuality integrated throughout the text is better than being isolated in a single section.
Teaching Lesbian/Gay Development: From Oppression to Exceptionality. Anthony R. D'Augelli, Ph.D.
Accurate information on homosexuality is difficult for gay and lesbian youths to obtain and this perpetuates feelings of inadequacy and fear. For many youths, going to college is their first opportunity to explore their feelings and catch up on their socialization skills. However, much theory on sexual orientation is from a heterosexist attitude and does not affirm gay and lesbian lives and thus, even college courses on sexuality are not gay affirming.
The author describes an undergraduate course he has been teaching since 1984 that approaches the topic of lesbian/gay development by appreciating the strengths gays and lesbians must have in order to maintain intimacy in a hostile and unsupportive environment instead of focusing on the supposed problems of being gay and lesbian.
The course has six conceptual themes and explores “factors that influence the developmental processes of lesbians and gay men, and progresses through a consideration of three levels of analysis: personal change over the life course, the development of close relationships (family, friendships, partnerships), and the impact of society, culture, and history” (D'Augelli in Harbeck, 215).
The author begins the class by reviewing the historical process that gave rise to the concept of “homosexuality.” By taking this approach, the oppressive structure of social control is revealed and students are made aware that identifying and naming a sexual group as “deviant” is the “social problem.” Often, the study of homosexuality emphasizes the “deviance,” or “alternative lifestyle” of lesbians and gay men. The author objects to this deficit approach and argues that gay men and lesbians achieve higher developmental status with more differentiated lives because of their stigmatized socialization patterns. Since social rituals are not available to gays and lesbians, they must be self-conscious about relationships—both at the personal and family level, but also at the community level.
Focusing on changes over the life course ends on older adults who are lesbian and gay, helping to show that there is a future worth anticipating, plus gaining a better understanding of the strengths their predecessors had in overcoming prejudice. The author assumes that gays and lesbians move toward intimacy and committed relationships that includes a rich circle of friends and other couples (including heterosexual couples). And that these relationships extend to the families of origin and the families of creation. This helps to overcome the stereotypes reinforced through flawed research on homosexuality.
The students are encouraged to engage in personal exploration through the use of short reaction papers on weekly readings. The goal is empowerment, not psychotherapy. The course regularly attracts 25 to 35 students of which approximately 80% are gay and lesbian. In the six years since the first offering in 1984, no heterosexual males have completed the course. Of the heterosexual females who have taken the course, they indicated that they took the course because they either had a relative (usually brother) who was gay or that they planned on entering a helping profession. Very few students use the course to help themselves “come out” but rather to use the course to help them better integrate their sexual orientation into their lives. Students appreciated a lesbian/gay-affirming classroom, something not found in other classes on campus. Students found that they became acutely aware of their own internalized homophobia, acknowledged the pain of their earlier years, became closer with their parents, became hyperconscious of the heterosexism and overt homophobia in their daily lives, better understood the turmoil of first relationships and became politically active. The author concludes that it is “critical to inform young lesbians and gay men about barriers to their development, to help them appreciate their Exceptionality, and to encourage them to plan their own development in an active, assertive manner.” (D'Augelli in Harbeck, 225)
Educating Mental Health Professionals about Gay and Lesbian Issues. Bianca Cody Murphy, Ed.D.
Although all major mental health provider organizations recognize the need to educate their members about gay and lesbian issues, in reality, gay and lesbian topics are rarely discussed in either the graduate programs or in the field. Education on gay and lesbian issues is best approached by fully integrating them into all aspects of training and professional practice, not by compartmentalizing them and therefore marginalizing the issues. The curriculum needs to include “the three I's”: Information, Interplay, and Interaction.
Mental health professionals need to elect openly gays and/or lesbians to professional organizations and oversee accrediting and certifying organizations and licensing exams that they include gay and lesbian issues.
HIV Education for Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youth: Personal Risk, Personal Power, and the Community of Conscience. Kevin Cranston, MDiv
The research is sparse and inconclusive about what works best, but the likely components of a successful approach to preventing HIV infection with adolescents includes: 1. HIV information needs to be part of a comprehensive health education program. 2. The self-esteem of young people is the linchpin to the ability of adolescents to utilize the health information. 3. The adolescent needs to effective express personal needs, decide on levels of acceptable risks and the ability to discuss options of sexual expression with his/her partner(s). Most of the recent HIV prevention programs aimed at adolescents actively exclude gay and lesbian issues. Attempting to spread the word that “AIDS is not a gay disease” so as to reach heterosexual students, schools have actually requested that discussion on AIDS refrain from discussing homosexuality. To be effective with gay and lesbian adolescents, an AIDS/HIV Education programs should: address the low self-esteem and other personal problems; be affordable, confidential and sensitive; help the adolescent cope with the coming out process; provide accurate safer sex and other risk reduction materials; and create an authentic community for young gay, lesbian and bisexual persons. Instead of engaging adolescents in the learning process, often AIDS/HIV is presented as though it is data being inserted into the adolescents' mind (“banking” model). Since they are not actively engaged, the educational event has not served the student, but rather the power structure that the AIDS educator represents. Thus, students need to gain control of the school sexuality curricula which would “actively engage in discussions about homosexuality in health classes and elsewhere” (Cranston in Harbeck, 256). A community of conscience would include three institutional settings—schools, multi-service agencies and self-help support groups—and represent a challenge to conservative heterosexists and well-meaning adults helpers who seek to “do for” gay, lesbian and bisexual youths.
commenting closed for this article